Obstetric aspects of gestational diabetes mellitus
Khodzhaeva Z.S., Muminova K.T., Avdeeva A.M., Limonova E.M., Yarygina T.A.
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a common complication of pregnancy affecting 84% of women with hyperglycemia. Its development is associated with insulin resistance that increases by the middle of the second trimester and peaks in the third trimester of pregnancy. Metabolic imprinting is a critical phenomenon in GDM, which occurs when maternal hyperglycemia causes persistent metabolic changes in the fetus. GDM is associated with a high risk of congenital fetal anomalies (especially congenital heart defects), macrosomia and diabetic fetopathy, which require dynamic qualified ultrasound and Doppler examination. The results of the studies, as well as the high incidence of obesity, indicate the need to change the timing of the oral glucose tolerance test from the traditional (24–28 weeks) to earlier period (middle of the second trimester). When choosing hormone therapy for women with gestational diabetes, who are at risk of miscarriage or preterm birth, it is recommended to prefer micronized progesterone. Unlike synthetic progestins such as 17-hydroxyprogesterone caproate, micronized progesterone does not decrease insulin resistance and has additional benefits, namely anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects.
Conclusion: GDM is not only a problem of the gestational period, it significantly increases the risk of long-term metabolic disorders in mother and child. When it is necessary to prescribe progestogens to patients with GDM, micronized progesterone is considered a preferable option, as its effect on the glycemic profile is less severe.
Authors’ contributions: Khodzhaeva Z.S. – writing and final editing of the text of the article; Muminova K.T., Avdeeva A.M., Yarygina T.A. – selecting literature sources and writing the article; Limonova A.M. – selecting literature sources.
Conflicts of interest: Authors declare lack of the possible conflicts of interest.
Funding: This article was prepared with the support of the Russian Science Foundation Grant No. 24-64-00006,
https://rscf.ru/project/24-64-00006
For citation: Khodzhaeva Z.S., Muminova K.T., Avdeeva A.M., Limonova E.M., Yarygina T.A.
Obstetric aspects of gestational diabetes mellitus.
Akusherstvo i Ginekologiya/Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2025; (6): 13-19 (in Russian)
https://dx.doi.org/10.18565/aig.2025.96
Keywords
References
- International Diabetes Federation. Care and prevention: gestational diabetes. Available at: https://www.idf.org/our-activities/care-prevention/gdm(accessed March 21, 2019).
- Hod M., Kapur A., McIntyre H.D.; FIGO Working Group on Hyperglycemia in Pregnancy; FIGO Pregnancy and Prevention of early NCD Committee. Evidence in support of the International Association of Diabetes in Pregnancy study groups' criteria for diagnosing gestational diabetes mellitus worldwide in 2019. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2019; 221(2):109-16. https://dx.doi.org 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.01.206
- QuickStats: Percentage of Mothers with Gestational Diabetes,* by Maternal Age - National Vital Statistics System, United States, 2016 and 2021. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 2023; 72(1): 16. https://dx.doi.org 10.15585/mmwr.mm7201a4.
- Ye W., Luo C., Huang J., Li C., Liu Z., Liu F. Gestational diabetes mellitus and adverse pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2022; 377: e067946. https://dx.doi.org 10.1136/bmj-2021-067946
- Nguyen C.L., Pham N.M., Binns C.W., Duong D.V., Lee A.H. Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in Eastern and Southeastern Asia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Diabetes Res. 2018; 2018: 6536974. https://dx.doi.org 10.1155/2018/6536974
- Brink H.S., van der Lely A.J., van der Linden J. The potential role of biomarkers in predicting gestational diabetes. Endocr. Connect. 2016; 5(5): R26-34. https://dx.doi.org 10.1530/EC-16-0033
- Постоев В.А., Телкова А.А., Маевская П.С., Постоева А.В., Усынина А.А., Гржибовский А.М. Прегестационный и гестационный сахарный диабет как фактор риска для прогнозирования развития врожденных аномалий у новорожденных. Акушерство и гинекология. 2023; 11: 78-86. [Postoev V.A., Telkova A.A., Maevskaya P.S., Postoeva A.V., Usynina A.A., Grjibovski A.M. Pregestational and gestational diabetes mellitus as risk factors for predicting the development of congenital anomalies in newborns. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2023; (11): 78-86 (in Russian)]. https://dx.doi.org/10.18565/aig.2023.125
- Zhang Y., Xiao C.M., Zhang Y., Chen Q., Zhang X.Q., Li X.F. et al. Factors associated with gestational diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. J. Diabetes Res. 2021; 2021: 6692695. https://dx.doi.org 10.1155/2021/6692695
- Powe C.E., Kwak S.H. Genetic studies of gestational diabetes and glucose metabolism in pregnancy. Curr. Diab. Rep. 2020; 20(12): 69. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11892-020-01355-3
- Немыкина И.С., Ткачук А.С., Попова П.В. Генетика и эпигенетика гестационного сахарного диабета. Российский журнал персонализированной медицины. 2023; 3(6): 21-8. [Nemykina I.S., Tkachuk A.S., Popova P.V. Genetics and epigenetics of gestational diabetes mellitus. Russian Journal for Personalized Medicine. 2023; 3(6): 21-8. (in Russian)]. https://dx.doi.org/10.18705/2782-3806-2023-3-6-21-28
- Shamsad A., Gautam T., Singh R., Banerjee M. Genetic and epigenetic alterations associated with gestational diabetes mellitus and adverse neonatal outcomes. World J. Clin. Pediatr. 2025; 14(1): 99231. https://dx.doi.org/10.5409/wjcp.v14.i1.99231.
- Abu Samra N., Jelinek H.F., Alsafar H., Seoud M., Hussein S.M., Mubarak H.M. et al. Genomics and epigenomics of gestational diabetes mellitus: understanding the molecular pathways of the disease pathogenesis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022; 23(7): 3514. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23073514
- Yan H., Yang W., Zhou F., Li X., Pan Q., Shen Z. et al. Estrogen improves insulin sensitivity and suppresses gluconeogenesis via the transcription factor Foxo1. Diabetes. 2019; 68(2): 291-304. https://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db18-0638
- Wada T., Hori S., Sugiyama M., Fujisawa E., Nakano T., Tsuneki H. et al. Progesterone inhibits glucose uptake by affecting diverse steps of insulin signaling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2010; 298(4): E881-8. https://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00649.2009
- Drummond R.F., Seif K.E., Reece E.A. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist use in pregnancy: a review. Am. J. Obstet Gynecol. 2025; 232(1): 17-25. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2024.08.024
- Powe C.E., Huston Presley L.P., Locascio J.J., Catalano P.M. Augmented insulin secretory response in early pregnancy. Diabetologia. 2019; 62(8): 1445-52. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-019-4881-6
- Parrettini S., Caroli A., Torlone E. Nutrition and metabolic adaptations in physiological and complicated pregnancy: focus on obesity and gestational diabetes. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne). 2020; 11: 611929. https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2020.611929
- Zgutka K., Tkacz M., Tomasiak P., Piotrowska K., Ustianowski P., Pawlik A. et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus-induced inflammation in the placenta via IL-1β and toll-like receptor pathways. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024; 25(21): 11409. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms252111409
- Yang Q., Li M., Zhao M., Lu F., Yu X., Li L. et al. Progesterone modulates CD4+ CD25+ FoxP3+ regulatory T Cells and TGF-β1 in the maternal-fetal interface of the late pregnant mouse. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 2022; 88(2): e13541. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aji.13541
- Rassie K.L., Giri R., Melder A., Joham A., Mousa A., Teede H.J. Lactogenic hormones in relation to maternal metabolic health in pregnancy and postpartum: protocol for a systematic review. BMJ Open. 2022; 12(2): e055257. https://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055257
- Saucedo R., Ortega-Camarillo C., Ferreira-Hermosillo A., Díaz-Velázquez M.F., Meixueiro-Calderón C., Valencia-Ortega J. Role of oxidative stress and inflammation in gestational diabetes mellitus. Antioxidants (Basel). 2023; 12(10): 1812. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox12101812
- Министерство здравоохранения Российской Федерации. Клинические рекомендации. Гестационный сахарный диабет. M.; 2024. 55 с. [Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation. Clinical guidelines. Gestational diabetes mellitus. Moscow; 2024. 55 p. (in Russian)].
- ACOG Clinical Practice Update: Screening for gestational and pregestational diabetes in pregnancy and postpartum. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2024; 144(1): 20-3. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000005612
- Salomon L.J., Alfirevic Z., Da Silva Costa F., Deter R.L., Figueras F., Ghi T. et al. ISUOG Practice Guidelines: ultrasound assessment of fetal biometry and growth. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 2019; 53(6): 715-23. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/uog.20272
- Venkataraman H., Ram U., Craik S., Arungunasekaran A., Seshadri S., Saravanan P. Increased fetal adiposity prior to diagnosis of gestational diabetes in South Asians: more evidence for the 'thin-fat' baby. Diabetologia. 2017; 60(3): 399-405. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-016-4166-2
- Рожкова О.В., Брусенцов И.Г. Возможности ультразвуковой диагностики диабетической фетопатии при гестационном сахарном диабете. Мать и Дитя в Кузбассе. 2020; 1(80): 32-7. [Rozhkova O.V., Вrusentsov I.G. Possibilities of ultrasonic diagnostics of diabetic phetopathy with gestational diabetes mellitus. Mother and Baby in Kuzbass. 2020; 1(80): 32-7. (in Russian)].
- Patil V., Srinivas G., Ms S., Kiran Das S., Hiremath R., Shabadi N. Diagnostic significance of ultrasonographic markers and score in detection of gestational diabetes mellitus in the indian subcontinent. Ultrasound Q. 2019; 37(4): 362-9. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/RUQ.0000000000000463
- Игнатко И.В., Алиева Ф.Н., Чурганова А.А., Родионова А.М., Романова Е.М., Усман Из Я., Анохина В.М., Черкашина А.В. Задержка роста плода при гестационном сахарном диабете: от патогенеза к тактике ведения. Акушерство и гинекология. 2024; 8: 14-23. [Ignatko I.V., Alieva F.N., Churganova A.A., Rodionova A.M., Romanova E.M., Usman Yz Y., Anokhina V.M., Cherkashina A.V. Fetal growth restriction in gestational diabetes mellitus: from pathogenesis to management tactics. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2024; (8): 14-23 (in Russian)]. https://dx.doi.org/10.18565/aig.2024.81
- Hirsch A., Peled T., Schlesinger S., Sela H.Y., Grisaru-Granovsky S., Rottenstreich M. Impact of gestational diabetes mellitus on neonatal outcomes in small for gestational age infants: a multicenter retrospective study. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 2024; 310(2): 685-93. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-024-07587-y
- Benevides F.T., Araujo Júnior E., Maia C.S.C., Montenegro Junior R.M., Carvalho F.H.C. Ultrasound evaluation of subcutaneous and visceral abdominal fat as a predictor of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med. 2022; 35(11): 2216-26. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2020.1781808
- Webber J., Charlton M., Johns N. Diabetes in pregnancy: management of diabetes and its complications from preconception to the postnatal period (NG3). The British Journal of Diabetes. 2015; 15(3): 107-11. https://dx.doi.org/10.15277/bjdvd.2015.029
- Nguyen M.T., Ouzounian J.G. Evaluation and management of fetal macrosomia. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. 2021; 48(2): 387-99. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2021.02.008
- Carvalho J.S., Axt-Fliedner R., Chaoui R., Copel J.A., Cuneo B.F., Goff D. et al. ISUOG Practice Guidelines (updated): fetal cardiac screening. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 2023; 61: 788-803. https://doi.org/10.1002/uog.26224
- Liu Y., Yue L., Chang L. Maternal gestational diabetes mellitus and congenital heart disease in offspring: a meta-analysis. Horm. Metab. Res. 2024; 56(8): 574-84. https://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-2238-1710
- Bhide A., Acharya G., Baschat A., Bilardo C.M., Brezinka C., Cafici D. et al. ISUOG Practice Guidelines (updated): use of Doppler velocimetry in obstetrics. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 2021; 58(2): 331-9. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/uog.23698
- D'Ambrosi F., Rossi G., Di Maso M., Marino C., Soldavini C.M., Caneschi A. et al. Altered Doppler velocimetry of fetal middle cerebral artery in singleton pregnancies complicated by mild well-controlled gestational diabetes. Fetal. Diagn. Ther. 2022; 49(3): 77-84. https://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000522203
- Rane B.M., Malau-Aduli B.S., Alele F., O'Brien C. Prognostic accuracy of antenatal Doppler ultrasound measures in predicting adverse perinatal outcomes for pregnancies complicated by diabetes: a systematic review. AJOG Glob. Rep. 2023; 3(3): 100241. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.xagr.2023.100241
- Залозняя И.В., Коптеева Е.В., Милютина Ю.П., Кореневский А.В., Арутюнян А.В., Шелаева Е.В., Капустин Р.В., Коган И.Ю. Оценка содержания маркеров оксидативного стресса в материнской и пуповинной крови беременных с сахарным диабетом в аспекте перераспределения кровотока в венозной системе плода. Акушерство и гинекология. 2024; 10: 41-51. [Zalozniaia I.V., Kopteeva E.V., Milyutina Yu.P., Korenevsky A.V., Arutjunyan A.V., Shelaeva E.V., Kapustin R.V., Kogan I.Yu. The levels of oxidative stress markers in maternal and umbilical cord blood of pregnant women with diabetes mellitus in terms of blood flow redistribution in the fetal venous system. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2024; (10): 41-51 (in Russian)]. https://dx.doi.org/10.18565/aig.2024.178
- International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Carvalho J.S., Allan L.D., Chaoui R., Copel J.A., DeVore G.R., Hecher K. et al. ISUOG Practice Guidelines (updated): sonographic screening examination of the fetal heart. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 2013; 41(3): 348-59. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/uog.12403.
- Zhang P., Fu X., Zhao L., Wang L., Wu S., Liu Y. et al. Quantifying fetal heart health in gestational diabetes: a new approach with fetal heart quantification technology. Front. Pharmacol. 2024; 15: 1394885. https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2024.1394885.
- Rouholamin S., Zarean E., Sadeghi L. Evaluation the efect of 17-alpha hydroxyprogesterone caproate on gestational diabetes mellitus in pregnant women at risk for preterm birth. Adv. Biomed. Res. 2015; 4(1): 242. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2277-9175.168609
- Pergialiotis V., Bellos I., Hatziagelaki E., Antsaklis A., Loutradis D., Daskalakis G. Progestogens for the prevention of preterm birth and risk of developing gestational diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2019; 221(5): 429-436.e5. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2019.05.033
- Eke A.C., Sheffield J., Graham E.M. 17α-hydroxyprogesterone caproate and the risk of glucose intolerance in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstet. Gynecol. 2019; 133(3): 468-75. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003115
- Wu H., Zhang S., Lin X., He J., Wang S., Zhou P. Pregnancy-related complications and perinatal outcomes following progesterone supplementation before 20 weeks of pregnancy in spontaneously achieved singleton pregnancies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 2021; 19(1): 165. https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12958-021-00846-6
- Zipori Y., Lauterbach R., Matanes E., Beloosesky R., Weiner Z., Weissman A. Vaginal progesterone for the prevention of preterm birth and the risk of gestational diabetes. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 2018; 230: 6-9. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2018.09.011
- Rosta K., Ott J., Kelemen F., Temsch W., Lahner T., Reischer T. et al. Is vaginal progesterone treatment associated with the development of gestational diabetes? A retrospective case-control study. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 2018; 298(6):1079-84. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-018-4895-1
- Norman J.E., Marlow N., Messow C.M., Shennan A., Bennett P.R., Thornton S. et al.; OPPTIMUM study group. Vaginal progesterone prophylaxis for preterm birth (the OPPTIMUM study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet. 2016; 387(10033): 2106-16. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00350-0
- Fedotcheva T.A., Fedotcheva N.I., Shimanovsky N.L. Progesterone as an anti-inflammatory drug and immunomodulator: new aspects in hormonal regulation of the inflammation. Biomolecules. 2022; 12(9): 1299. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biom12091299
- Kolatorova L., Vitku J., Suchopar J., Hill M., Parizek A. Progesterone: a steroid with wide range of effects in physiology as well as human medicine. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022; 23(14): 7989. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23147989
- Gutzeit O., Segal L., Korin B., Iluz R., Khatib N., Dabbah-Assadi F. et al. Progesterone attenuates brain inflammatory response and inflammation-induced increase in immature myeloid cells in a mouse model. Inflammation. 2021; 44(3): 956-64. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10753-020-01390-y
- Bulletti C., Bulletti F.M., Sciorio R., Guido M. Progesterone: the key factor of the beginning of life. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022; 23(22): 14138. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms232214138
Received 07.04.2025
Accepted 15.05.2025
About the Authors
Zulfiуa S. Khodzhaeva, Dr. Med. Sci., Professor, Deputy Director for Research of the Institute of Obstetrics, Academician V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Ministry of Health of Russia, 117997, Russia, Moscow, Ac. Oparin str., 4, +7(916)407-75-67, zkhodjaeva@mail.ru,https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8159-3714
Kamilla T. Muminova, PhD, Researcher at the 1st Department of Pregnancy Pathology, Academician V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Ministry of Health of Russia, 117997, Russia, Moscow, Ac. Oparin str., 4, +7(916)373-77-07, kamika91@mail.ru,
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2708-4366
Anna M. Avdeeva, student, Faculty of Fundamental Medicine, Moscow Scientific and Educational Institute, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Russia, Moscow, Leninskiye Gory, 1, +7(916)900-06-50, a_avdeeva@oparina4.ru, https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2225-2469
Elizaveta M. Limonova, PhD student at the 1st Department of Pregnancy Pathology, Academician V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Ministry of Health of Russia, 117997, Russia, Moscow, Ac. Oparin str., 4, +7(922)906-08-07, limoninskay@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8960-4829
Tamara A. Yarygina, PhD, Head of the Ultrasound Diagnostics Department, Academician V.I. Krasnopolsky Moscow Regional Research Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 101000, Russia, Moscow, Pokrovka str., 22a; Researcher at the Perinatal Cardiology Center, A.N. Bakulev National Medical Research Center for Cardiovascular Surgery, Ministry of Health of Russia, 121552, Russia, Moscow, Roublevskoe shosse, 135, +7(903)004-81-22, tamarayarygina@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6140-1930
Corresponding author: Zulfiya S. Khodzhaeva, zkhodjaeva@mail.ru